Turbofan Engine - An Evolution Over Turbojet Engine
2-spool, high-bypass turbofan
A. Low-pressure spool
B. High-pressure spool
C. Stationary components
1. Nacelle
2. Fan
3. Low-pressure compressor
4. High-pressure compressor
5. Combustion chamber
6. High-pressure turbine
7. Low-pressure turbine
8. Core nozzle
9. Fan nozzle
A turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine
that is widely used in aircraft propulsion. The word "turbofan" is a
combination of references to the preceding generation engine technology of the
turbojet and the additional fan stage. It consists of a gas turbine engine
which achieves mechanical energy from combustion, and a ducted fan that uses
the mechanical energy from the gas turbine to force air rearwards. Thus,
whereas all the air taken in by a turbojet passes through the combustion
chamber and turbines, in a turbofan some of that air bypasses these components.
A turbofan thus can be thought of as a turbojet being used to drive a ducted
fan, with both of these contributing to the thrust.
The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine core
to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as the bypass
ratio. The engine produces thrust through a combination of these two portions
working together. Engines that use more jet thrust relative to fan thrust are
known as low-bypass turbofans; conversely those that have considerably more fan
thrust than jet thrust are known as high-bypass. Most commercial aviation jet
engines in use are of the high-bypass type, and most modern fighter engines are
low-bypass. Afterburners are used on low-bypass turbofan engines with bypass
and core mixing before the afterburner. Modern turbofans have either a large
single-stage fan or a smaller fan with several stages. An early configuration
combined a low-pressure turbine and fan in a single rear-mounted unit.
Principles
Schematic diagram of a modern 2-spool turbofan engine installation in a nacelle.
The turbofan was invented to improve the fuel consumption of
the turbojet. It achieves this by pushing more air, thus increasing the mass
and lowering the speed of the propelling jet compared to that of the turbojet.
This is done mechanically by adding a ducted fan rather than using viscous
forces. A vacuum ejector is used in conjunction with the fan as first envisaged
by inventor Frank Whittle. Whittle envisioned flight speeds of 500 mph in his
March 1936 UK patent 471,368 "Improvements relating to the propulsion of
aircraft", in which he describes the principles behind the turbofan,
although not called as such at that time. While the turbojet uses the gas from
its thermodynamic cycle as its propelling jet, for aircraft speeds below 500
mph there are two penalties to this design which are addressed by the turbofan.
First, the energy required for a given thrust increases as
the exhaust air is propelled at ever greater speeds, so the efficiency can be
improved by diverting energy to propel larger quantities of air at lower speeds
than the core. A turbofan achieves this by using an additional turbine to drive
a ducted fan to blow air that bypasses the high speed core. With a lower core
thrust, most of the thrust now comes from the large mass of low speed bypass
air, providing the same thrust with a reduced fuel burn. The other penalty is
that combustion is less efficient at lower speeds. Any action to reduce the
fuel consumption of the engine by increasing its pressure ratio or turbine
temperature to achieve better combustion causes a corresponding increase in
pressure and temperature in the exhaust duct which in turn cause a higher gas
speed from the propelling nozzle (and higher KE and wasted fuel). Although the
engine would use less fuel to produce a pound of thrust, more fuel is wasted in
the faster propelling jet. In other words, the independence of thermal and
propulsive efficiencies, as exists with the piston engine/propeller combination
which preceded the turbojet, is lost. In contrast, Roth considers regaining
this independence the single most important feature of the turbofan which
allows specific thrust to be chosen independently of the gas generator cycle.
The working substance of the thermodynamic cycle is the only
mass accelerated to produce thrust in a turbojet which is a serious limitation
(high fuel consumption) for aircraft speeds below supersonic. For subsonic
flight speeds the speed of the propelling jet has to be reduced because there
is a price to be paid in producing the thrust. The energy required to
accelerate the gas inside the engine is expended in two ways, by producing a
change in momentum, and a wake which is an unavoidable consequence of producing
thrust by an airbreathing engine. The wake velocity, and fuel burned to produce
it, can be reduced and the required thrust still maintained by increasing the
mass accelerated. A turbofan does this by transferring energy available inside
the engine, from the gas generator, to a ducted fan which produces a second,
additional mass of accelerated air.
The transfer of energy from the core to bypass air results in
lower pressure and temperature gas entering the core nozzle (lower exhaust
velocity), and fan-produced higher pressure and temperature bypass-air entering
the fan nozzle. The amount of energy transferred depends on how much pressure
rise the fan is designed to produce (fan pressure ratio). The best energy
exchange (lowest fuel consumption) between the two flows, and how the jet
velocities compare, depends on how efficiently the transfer takes place which
depends on the losses in the fan-turbine and fan. The fan flow has lower
exhaust velocity, giving much more thrust per unit energy (lower specific
thrust). Both airstreams contribute to the gross thrust of the engine. The
additional air for the bypass stream increases the ram drag in the air intake
stream-tube, but there is still a significant increase in net thrust. The
overall effective exhaust velocity of the two exhaust jets can be made closer
to a normal subsonic aircraft's flight speed and gets closer to the ideal
Froude efficiency. A turbofan accelerates a larger mass of air more slowly,
compared to a turbojet which accelerates a smaller amount more quickly, which
is a less efficient way to generate the same thrust (see the efficiency section
below).
The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine core
compared to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as
the bypass ratio. Engines with more jet thrust relative to fan
thrust are known as low-bypass turbofans, those that have
considerably more fan thrust than jet thrust are known as high-bypass.
Most commercial aviation jet engines in use are high-bypass, and most modern
fighter engines are low-bypass. Afterburners are used on low-bypass
turbofans on combat aircraft.
Bypass Ratio
The ByPass Ratio (BPR) of a turbofan engine is the ratio
between the mass flow rate of the bypass stream to the mass flow rate entering
the core. A bypass ratio of 6, for example, means that 6 times more air passes
through the bypass duct than the amount that passes through the combustion
chamber. Turbofan engines are usually described in terms of BPR, which together
with overall pressure ratio, turbine inlet temperature and fan pressure ratio
are important design parameters. In addition BPR is quoted for turboprop and
unducted fan installations because their high propulsive efficiency gives them
the overall efficiency characteristics of very high bypass turbofans. This
allows them to be shown together with turbofans on plots which show trends of
reducing specific fuel consumption (SFC) with increasing BPR. BPR can also be
quoted for lift fan installations where the fan airflow is remote from the
engine and doesn't flow past the engine core.
Considering a constant core (i.e. fixed pressure ratio and
turbine inlet temperature), core and bypass jet velocities equal and a
particular flight condition (i.e. Mach number and altitude) the fuel
consumption per lb of thrust (sfc) decreases with increase in BPR. At the same
time gross and net thrusts increase, but by different amounts. There is
considerable potential for reducing fuel consumption for the same core cycle by
increasing BPR. This is achieved because of the reduction in pounds of thrust per
lb/sec of airflow (specific thrust) and the resultant reduction in lost kinetic
energy in the jets (increase in propulsive efficiency). If all the gas power
from a gas turbine is converted to kinetic energy in a propelling nozzle, the
aircraft is best suited to high supersonic speeds. If it is all transferred to
a separate big mass of air with low kinetic energy, the aircraft is best suited
to zero speed (hovering). For speeds in between, the gas power is shared
between a separate airstream and the gas turbine's own nozzle flow in a
proportion which gives the aircraft performance required.
The trade-off between mass flow and velocity is also seen
with propellers and helicopter rotors by comparing disc loading and power
loading. For example, the same helicopter weight can be supported by a
high-power engine and small diameter rotor or, for less fuel, a lower power
engine and bigger rotor with lower velocity through the rotor. Bypass usually
refers to transferring gas power from a gas turbine to a bypass stream of air
to reduce fuel consumption and jet noise. Alternatively, there may be a requirement
for an afterburning engine where the sole requirement for bypass is to provide
cooling air. This sets the lower limit for BPR and these engines have been
called "leaky" or continuous bleed turbojets (General Electric YJ-101
BPR 0.25) and low BPR turbojets (Pratt & Whitney PW1120). Low BPR (0.2) has
also been used to provide surge margin as well as afterburner cooling for the
Pratt & Whitney J58.
Efficiency
Propulsive efficiency comparison for various gas turbine engine configurations
Propeller engines are most efficient for low speeds, turbojet
engines for high speeds, and turbofan engines between the two. Turbofans are
the most efficient engines in the range of speeds from about 500 to 1,000 km/h
(270 to 540 kn; 310 to 620 mph), the speed at which most commercial aircraft
operate. In a turbojet (zero-bypass) engine, the high temperature and high
pressure exhaust gas is accelerated when it undergoes expansion through a
propelling nozzle and produces all the thrust. The compressor absorbs the
mechanical power produced by the turbine. In a bypass design, extra turbines
drive a ducted fan that accelerates air rearward from the front of the engine.
In a high-bypass design, the ducted fan and nozzle produce
most of the thrust. Turbofans are closely related to turboprops in principle
because both transfer some of the gas turbine's gas power, using extra
machinery, to a bypass stream leaving less for the hot nozzle to convert to
kinetic energy. Turbofans represent an intermediate stage between turbojets,
which derive all their thrust from exhaust gases, and turbo-props which derive
minimal thrust from exhaust gases (typically 10% or less). Extracting shaft
power and transferring it to a bypass stream introduces extra losses which are
more than made up by the improved propulsive efficiency. The turboprop at its
best flight speed gives significant fuel savings over a turbojet even though an
extra turbine, a gearbox and a propeller are added to the turbojet's low-loss
propelling nozzle. The turbofan has additional losses from its greater number
of compressor stages/blades, fan and bypass duct. Froude, or propulsive,
efficiency can be defined as:-
Thrust
While a turbojet engine uses all of the engine's output to
produce thrust in the form of a hot high-velocity exhaust gas jet, a turbofan's
cool low-velocity bypass air yields between 30% and 70% of the total thrust
produced by a turbofan system. The thrust (FN) generated by a turbofan depends
on the effective exhaust velocity of the total exhaust, as with any jet engine,
but because two exhaust jets are present the thrust equation can be expanded
as:-
Nozzles
The cold duct and core duct's nozzle systems are relatively complex due to the use of two separate exhaust flows. In high bypass engines, the fan is situated in a short duct near the front of the engine and typically has a convergent cold nozzle, with the tail of the duct forming a low-pressure ratio nozzle that under normal conditions will choke creating supersonic flow patterns around the core. The core nozzle is more conventional, but generates less of the thrust, and depending on design choices, such as noise considerations, may conceivably not choke. In low bypass engines the two flows may combine within the ducts, and share a common nozzle, which can be fitted with afterburner.
Noise
Chevrons on a 747-8's GEnx-2B
Most of the air flow through a high-bypass turbofan is
lower-velocity bypass flow: even when combined with the much-higher-velocity
engine exhaust, the average exhaust velocity is considerably lower than in a
pure turbojet. Turbojet engine noise is predominately jet noise from
the high exhaust velocity. Therefore, turbofan engines are significantly
quieter than a pure-jet of the same thrust, and jet noise is no longer the
predominant source. Turbofan engine noise propagates both upstream via the
inlet and downstream via the primary nozzle and the by-pass duct. Other noise
sources are the fan, compressor and turbine. Modern commercial aircraft employ
high-bypass-ratio (HBPR) engines with separate flow, non-mixing, short-duct
exhaust systems. Their noise at take-off is primarily from the fan and
jet. The primary source of jet noise is the turbulent mixing of shear
layers in the engine's exhaust. These shear layers contain instabilities that
lead to highly turbulent vortices that generate the pressure fluctuations
responsible for sound. To reduce the noise associated with jet flow, the
aerospace industry has sought to disrupt shear layer turbulence and reduce the
overall noise produced.
Fan noise may come from the interaction of the fan-blade
wakes with the pressure field of the downstream fan-exit stator vanes. It may
be minimized by adequate axial spacing between blade trailing edge and stator
entrance. At high engine speeds, as at take-off, shock waves from the
supersonic fan tips, because of their unequal nature, produce noise of a
discordant nature known as "buzz saw" noise. All modern turbofan
engines have acoustic liners in the nacelle to damp their
noise. They extend as much as possible to cover the largest surface area. The
acoustic performance of the engine can be experimentally evaluated by means of
ground tests or in dedicated experimental test rigs. In the aerospace industry, chevrons are
the "saw-tooth" patterns on the trailing edges of some jet
engine nozzle that are used for noise reduction. The shaped
edges smooth the mixing of hot air from the engine core and cooler air flowing
through the engine fan, which reduces noise-creating turbulence. GE developed Chevrons
under a NASA contract. Some examples are Boeing 787, Boeing
737 Max and Boeing 747-8, Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 (787), General Electric GEnx (787,
748-8) and CFM LEAP (1B variant only; 737 Max) engines.
History
Rolls-Royce Conway low-bypass turbofan from a Boeing
707. The bypass air exits from the fins, while the exhaust from the core exits
from the central nozzle. This fluted jet pipe design is a noise-reducing method
devised by Frederick Greatorex at Rolls-Royce. Early turbojet engines were not
very fuel-efficient because their overall pressure ratio and turbine
inlet temperature were severely limited by the technology and materials
available at the time. The first turbofan engine, which was only run on a test
bed, was the German Daimler-Benz DB 670, designated the 109-007 by the
German RLM (Ministry of Aviation), with a first run date of 27 May 1943,
after the testing of the turbomachinery using an electric motor, which had been
undertaken on 1 April 1943. Development of the engine was abandoned
with its problems unsolved, as the war situation worsened for Germany.
In 1943, the British ground tested the Metrovick F.3
turbofan, which used the Metrovick F.2 turbojet as a gas generator with the
exhaust discharging into a close-coupled aft-fan module comprising a
contra-rotating LP turbine system driving two co-axial contra-rotating fans.
Improved materials, and the introduction of twin compressors, such as in the
Bristol Olympus, and Pratt & Whitney JT3C engines, increased the overall
pressure ratio and thus the thermodynamic efficiency of engines. They also had poor
propulsive efficiency, because pure turbojets have a high specific thrust/high
velocity exhaust, which is better suited to supersonic flight.
The original low-bypass turbofan engines were designed to
improve propulsive efficiency by reducing the exhaust velocity to a value
closer to that of the aircraft. The Rolls-Royce Conway, the world's first
production turbofan, had a bypass ratio of 0.3, similar to the modern General
Electric F404 fighter engine. Civilian turbofan engines of the 1960s, such as
the Pratt & Whitney JT8D and the Rolls-Royce Spey, had bypass ratios closer
to 1 and were similar to their military equivalents. The first Soviet airliner
powered by turbofan engines was the Tupolev Tu-124 introduced in 1962. It used
the Soloviev D-20.[43] 164 aircraft were produced between 1960 and 1965 for
Aeroflot and other Eastern Bloc airlines, with some operating until the early
1990s.
The first General Electric turbofan was the aft-fan CJ805-23,
based on the CJ805-3 turbojet. It was followed by the aft-fan General Electric
CF700 engine, with a 2.0 bypass ratio. This was derived from the General
Electric J85/CJ610 turbojet 2,850 lbf (12,700 N) to power the larger Rockwell
Sabreliner 75/80 model aircraft, as well as the Dassault Falcon 20, with about
a 50% increase in thrust to 4,200 lbf (19,000 N). The CF700 was the first small
turbofan to be certified by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). There
were at one time over 400 CF700 aircraft in operation around the world, with an
experience base of over 10 million service hours. The CF700 turbofan engine was
also used to train Moon-bound astronauts in Project Apollo as the powerplant for
the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle.
Common Types
Low-bypass Turbofan
Schematic diagram illustrating a 2-spool, low-bypass turbofan
engine with a mixed exhaust, showing the low-pressure (green) and high-pressure
(purple) spools.
The fan (and booster stages) are driven by the low-pressure
turbine, whereas the high-pressure compressor is powered by the high-pressure
turbine. A high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofan normally has a
multi-stage fan behind inlet guide vanes, developing a relatively high-pressure
ratio and, thus, yielding a high (mixed or cold) exhaust velocity. The core
airflow needs to be large enough to ensure there is sufficient core power to
drive the fan. A smaller core flow/higher bypass ratio cycle can be achieved by
raising the inlet temperature of the high-pressure (HP) turbine rotor. To
illustrate one aspect of how a turbofan differs from a turbojet, comparisons
can be made at the same airflow (to keep a common intake for example) and the
same net thrust (i.e. same specific thrust). A bypass flow can be added only if
the turbine inlet temperature is not too high to compensate for the smaller
core flow. Future improvements in turbine cooling/material technology can allow
higher turbine inlet temperature, which is necessary because of increased
cooling air temperature, resulting from an overall pressure ratio increase.
The resulting turbofan, with reasonable efficiencies and duct
loss for the added components, would probably operate at a higher nozzle
pressure ratio than the turbojet, but with a lower exhaust temperature to
retain net thrust. Since the temperature rise across the whole engine (intake
to nozzle) would be lower, the (dry power) fuel flow would also be reduced,
resulting in a better specific fuel consumption (SFC). Some
low-bypass ratio military turbofans (e.g. F404, JT8D) have variable
inlet guide vanes to direct air onto the first fan rotor stage. This improves
the fan surge margin.
Pratt & Whitney JT8D was used on early
narrowbody jetliners. Fan located behind inlet guide vanes.
Soloviev D-30 powers the Ilyushin Il-76, Il-62M; Mikoyan MiG-31; Xian H-6K and
Y-20.
Saturn AL-31 powers
the Chengdu J-10, J-20; Shenyang J-11, J-15, J-16; Sukhoi Su-30 and Su-27
Williams F107 powers
the Raytheon BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missile
NPO Saturn AL-55 powers few HAL HJT-36 Sitara
Pratt & Whitney TF-30 powers Grumman F-14 Tomcat
Eurojet EJ200 powers the Eurofighter Typhoon
Ishikawajima-Harima F3 powers Kawasaki T-4
GTRE GTX-35VS Kaveri developed by GTRE
Afterburning Turbofan
Pratt & Whitney F119 afterburning turbofan on test
Since 1970s, most jet fighter engines have been low/medium
bypass turbofans with a mixed exhaust, afterburner and variable area exit
nozzle. An afterburner is a combustor located downstream of the turbine blades
and directly upstream of the nozzle, which burns fuel from afterburner-specific
fuel injectors. When lit, large volumes of fuel are burnt in the afterburner,
raising the temperature of exhaust gases by a significant degree, resulting in
a higher exhaust velocity/engine specific thrust. The variable geometry nozzle
must open to a larger throat area to accommodate the extra volume and increased
flow rate when the afterburner is lit. Afterburning is often designed to give a
significant thrust boost for take off, transonic acceleration and combat maneuvers,
but is very fuel intensive. Consequently, afterburning can be used only for
short portions of a mission.
Unlike main engine, where stoichiometric temperatures in the
combustor have to be reduced before they reach the turbine, an afterburner at
maximum fuelling is designed to produce stoichiometric temperatures at entry to
the nozzle, about 2,100 K (3,800 °R; 3,300 °F; 1,800 °C). At a fixed total
applied fuel:air ratio, the total fuel flow for a given fan airflow will be the
same, regardless of the dry specific thrust of the engine. However, a high
specific thrust turbofan will, have a higher nozzle pressure ratio, resulting
in a higher afterburning net thrust and, so a lower afterburning specific fuel
consumption (SFC). However, high specific thrust engines have a high dry SFC.
This is reversed for a medium specific thrust afterburning
turbofan: i.e., poor afterburning SFC/good dry SFC. The former engine is
suitable for a combat aircraft which must remain in afterburning combat for
long period, but fights fairly close to the airfield (e.g. cross border
skirmishes). The latter engine is best suited for an aircraft that must fly
long distance, or loiter long time, before combat. However, pilot can only
afford to use afterburner for short period, before fuel reserves go low. The first
production afterburning turbofan engine was the Pratt & Whitney TF30, which
initially powered the F-111 Aardvark and F-14 Tomcat. Low-bypass military
turbofans include the Pratt & Whitney F119, the Eurojet EJ200, the General
Electric F110, the Klimov RD-33, and the Saturn AL-31, all of which feature a
mixed exhaust, afterburner and variable area propelling nozzle.
High-bypass Turbofan
Schematic diagram illustrating a 2-spool, high-bypass
turbofan engine with an unmixed exhaust.
The low-pressure spool is coloured green and the
high-pressure one purple. Again, the fan (and booster stages) are driven by the
low-pressure turbine, but more stages are required. A mixed exhaust is often
employed. To further improve fuel economy and reduce noise, almost all jet
airliners and most military transport aircraft (e.g., the C-17) are
powered by low-specific-thrust/high-bypass-ratio turbofans. These engines
evolved from the high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofans used in such
aircraft in the 1960s. Modern combat aircraft tend to use low-bypass ratio
turbofans, and some military transport aircraft use turboprops. Low
specific thrust is achieved by replacing the multi-stage fan with a
single-stage unit. Unlike some military engines, modern civil turbofans lack
stationary inlet guide vanes in front of the fan rotor. The fan is scaled to
achieve the desired net thrust.
The core (or gas generator) of the engine must generate
enough power to drive the fan at its rated mass flow and pressure ratio.
Improvements in turbine cooling/material technology allow for a higher (HP)
turbine rotor inlet temperature, which allows a smaller (and lighter) core,
potentially improving the core thermal efficiency. Reducing the core mass flow
tends to increase the load on the LP turbine, so this unit may require
additional stages to reduce the average stage loading and to maintain
LP turbine efficiency. Reducing core flow also increases bypass ratio. Bypass
ratios greater than 5:1 are increasingly common; the Pratt & Whitney
PW1000G, which entered commercial service in 2016, attains 12.5:1. Further
improvements in core thermal efficiency can be achieved by raising the overall
pressure ratio of the core. Improvements in blade aerodynamics can reduce the
number of extra compressor stages required, and variable geometry stators
enable high-pressure-ratio compressors to work surge-free at all throttle
settings.
General Electric CF6-6 engine
AVCO-Lycoming PLF1A-2, a Honeywell T55 turboshaft-derived
engine; was the first (experimental) high-bypass turbofan engine. The PLF1A-2
that had first run in February 1962, had a 40-in diameter (100 cm) geared fan
stage, produced a static thrust of 4,320 lb (1,960 kg), and a bypass ratio of
6:1. General Electric TF39 became the first production model, designed to power
the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy military transport aircraft. The civil General Electric
CF6 engine used a derivative design. Other high-bypass turbofans are the Pratt
& Whitney JT9D, the three-shaft Rolls-Royce RB211, CFM International CFM56,
and TF34. Large high-bypass turbofans include the Pratt & Whitney PW4000,
the three-shaft Rolls-Royce Trent, the General Electric GE90/GEnx and the GP7000,
produced jointly by GE and P&W. Pratt & Whitney JT9D engine was first
high bypass ratio jet engine to power a wide-body airliner.
The lower the specific thrust of a turbofan, the lower the
mean jet outlet velocity, which in turn translates into a high thrust
lapse rate (i.e. decreasing thrust with increasing flight speed). See
technical discussion below, item 2. Consequently, an engine sized to propel an
aircraft at high subsonic flight speed (e.g., Mach 0.83) generates a relatively
high thrust at low flight speed, thus enhancing runway performance. Low
specific thrust engines tend to have a high bypass ratio, but this is also a
function of the temperature of the turbine system. The turbofans on
twin-engined transport aircraft produce enough take-off thrust to continue a
take-off on one engine if the other engine shuts down after a critical point in
the take-off run. From that point on the aircraft has less than half the thrust
compared to two operating engines because the non-functioning engine is a
source of drag. Modern twin-engined airliners normally climb very steeply
immediately after take-off. If one engine shuts down, the climb-out is much
shallower, but sufficient to clear obstacles in the flightpath. Soviet Union's
engine technology was less advanced than the West's, and its first wide-body
aircraft, the Ilyushin Il-86, was powered by low-bypass engines. The Yakovlev
Yak-42, a medium-range aircraft with seating for 120 passengers, was
the first Soviet aircraft to use high-bypass engines.
PowerJet SaM146 powers Sukhoi Superjet 100
General Electric CF6 powers Airbus A300, Boeing 747, Douglas
DC-10 and other aircraft
Rolls-Royce Trent 900, powers Airbus A380
Pratt & Whitney PW4000, powers Boeing 777, MD-11 and Airbus
A330
CFM56 powers Boeing 737, Airbus A320, and other
aircraft
Engine Alliance GP7000 turbofan for the Airbus A380
Aviadvigatel PS-90 powers the Ilyushin Il-96, Tupolev
Tu-204, Ilyushin Il-76
Lycoming ALF 502 powers the British Aerospace 146
Aviadvigatel PD-14 will be used on the Irkut MC-21
Three shaft Progress D-436
Trent 1000 powers Boeing 787
GE90, most powerful aircraft engine powers Boeing 777
Turbofan Configurations
Turbofan engines come in a variety of engine configurations.
For a given engine cycle (i.e., same airflow, bypass ratio, fan pressure ratio,
overall pressure ratio and HP turbine rotor inlet temperature), the choice of
turbofan configuration has little impact upon the design point performance
(e.g., net thrust, SFC), as long as overall component performance is
maintained. Off-design performance and stability is, however, affected by
engine configuration. The basic element of a turbofan is a spool, a
single combination of fan/compressor, turbine and shaft rotating at a single
speed. For a given pressure ratio, the surge margin can be increased by two
different design paths:
1. Splitting the compressor into two
smaller spools rotating at different speeds, as with the Pratt &
Whitney J57; or
2. Making the stator vane pitch
adjustable, typically in the front stages, as with the J79.
Most modern western civil turbofans employ a relatively
high-pressure-ratio high-pressure (HP) compressor, with many rows of variable
stators to control surge margin at low rpm. In the three-spool RB211/Trent the
core compression system is split into two, with the IP compressor, which
supercharges the HP compressor, being on a different coaxial shaft and driven
by a separate (IP) turbine. As the HP compressor has a modest pressure ratio
its speed can be reduced surge-free, without employing variable geometry.
However, because a shallow IP compressor working line is inevitable, the IPC
has one stage of variable geometry on all variants except the −535, which has
none.
Single-shaft Turbofan
Although far from common, the single-shaft turbofan is
probably the simplest configuration, comprising a fan and high-pressure
compressor driven by a single turbine unit, all on the same spool. The Snecma
M53, which powers Dassault Mirage 2000 fighter aircraft, is an
example of a single-shaft turbofan. Despite the simplicity of the
turbomachinery configuration, the M53 requires a variable area mixer to
facilitate part-throttle operation.
Aft-fan Turbofan
One of the earliest turbofans was a derivative of the General
Electric J79 turbojet, known as the CJ805-23, which featured an
integrated aft fan/low-pressure (LP) turbine unit located in the turbojet
exhaust jetpipe. Hot gas from the turbojet turbine exhaust expanded through the
LP turbine, the fan blades being a radial extension of the turbine blades. This
arrangement introduces an additional gas leakage path compared to a front-fan
configuration and was problematic with higher-pressure turbine gas leaking into
the fan airflow.
An aft-fan configuration was later used for the General
Electric GE36 UDF (propfan) demonstrator of the early 1980s. In 1971 a
concept was put forward by the NASA Lewis Research Center for a supersonic
transport engine which operated as an aft-fan turbofan at take-off and subsonic
speeds and a turbojet at higher speeds. This gives low noise and high thrust
characteristics of turbofan at take-off, along with turbofan high propulsive
efficiency at subsonic flight speeds. It would have high propulsive efficiency
of turbojet at supersonic cruise speeds.
Basic Two-spool
dual-spool axial-flow compressor
Many turbofans have basic two-spool configuration where the
fan is on a separate low pressure (LP) spool, running concentrically with
compressor or high pressure (HP) spool. LP spool runs at a lower angular
velocity, while HP spool turns faster and its compressor further compresses
part of air for combustion, e.g. BR710. In case of smaller thrust sizes,
instead of all-axial blading, HP compressor configuration may be
axial-centrifugal e.g., CFE CFE738, double-centrifugal or diagonal/centrifugal
e.g. Pratt & Whitney Canada PW600.
Boosted two-spool
Higher overall pressure ratios can be achieved by either
raising the HP compressor pressure ratio or adding compressor (non-bypass)
stages to the LP spool, between the fan and the HP compressor, to boost the
latter. All of the large American turbofans (e.g. General Electric CF6, GE90,
GE9X and GEnx plus Pratt & Whitney JT9D and PW4000) use booster stages. The
Rolls-Royce BR715 is another example. The high bypass ratios used in modern
civil turbofans tend to reduce the relative diameter of the booster stages,
reducing their mean tip speed. Consequently, more booster stages are required
to develop the necessary pressure rise.
Three-spool
Rolls-Royce chose a three-spool configuration for their large
civil turbofans (i.e. the RB211 and Trent families), where the booster stages
of a boosted two-spool configuration are separated into an intermediate
pressure (IP) spool, driven by its own turbine. The first three-spool engine
was the earlier Rolls-Royce RB.203 Trent of 1967. The Garrett ATF3, powering
the Dassault Falcon 20 business jet, has an unusual three spool layout with an
aft spool not concentric with the two others. Ivchenko Design Bureau chose the
same configuration as Rolls-Royce for their Lotarev D-36 engine, followed by
Lotarev/Progress D-18T and Progress D-436. Turbo-Union RB199 military turbofan
also has a three-spool configuration, as do military Kuznetsov NK-25 and
NK-321.
Geared Turbofan
Geared turbofan, gearbox is labeled 2.
As bypass ratio increases, the fan blade tip speed increases
relative to the LPT blade speed. This will reduce the LPT blade speed,
requiring more turbine stages to extract enough energy to drive the fan.
Introducing a (planetary) reduction gearbox, with a suitable gear ratio,
between the LP shaft and the fan enables both the fan and LP turbine to operate
at their optimum speeds. Examples of this configuration are the
long-established Garrett TFE731, the Honeywell ALF 502/507, and the
recent Pratt & Whitney PW1000G.
Military Turbofans
Most of the configurations discussed above are used in
civilian turbofans, while modern military turbofans (e.g., Snecma M88) are
usually basic two-spool.
High-pressure Turbine
Most civil turbofans use a high-efficiency, 2-stage HP
turbine to drive the HP compressor. The CFM International CFM56 uses
an alternative approach: a single-stage, high-work unit. While this approach is
probably less efficient, there are savings on cooling air, weight and cost. In
the RB211 and Trent 3-spool engine series, the HP
compressor pressure ratio is modest so only a single HP turbine stage is
required. Modern military turbofans also tend to use a single HP turbine stage
and a modest HP compressor.
Low-pressure Turbine
Modern civil turbofans have multi-stage LP turbines (anywhere
from 3 to 7). The number of stages required depends on the engine cycle bypass
ratio and the boost (on boosted two-spools). A geared fan may reduce the number
of required LPT stages in some applications. Because of the much lower
bypass ratios employed, military turbofans require only one or two LP turbine
stages.
Overall Performance
Cycle Improvements
Consider a mixed turbofan with a fixed bypass ratio and
airflow. Increasing the overall pressure ratio of the compression
system raises the combustor entry temperature. Therefore, at a fixed fuel flow
there is an increase in (HP) turbine rotor inlet temperature. Although the
higher temperature rise across the compression system implies a larger temperature
drop over the turbine system, the mixed nozzle temperature is unaffected,
because the same amount of heat is being added to the system. There is,
however, a rise in nozzle pressure, because overall pressure ratio increases
faster than the turbine expansion ratio, causing an increase in the hot mixer
entry pressure. Consequently, net thrust increases, whilst specific fuel
consumption (fuel flow/net thrust) decreases. A similar trend occurs with
unmixed turbofans.
Turbofan engines can be made more fuel efficient by raising
overall pressure ratio and turbine rotor inlet temperature in unison. However,
better turbine materials or improved vane/blade cooling are required to cope
with increases in both turbine rotor inlet temperature and compressor delivery
temperature. Increasing the latter may require better compressor materials.
The overall pressure ratio can be increased by improving fan
(or) LP compressor pressure ratio or HP compressor pressure ratio. If the
latter is held constant, the increase in (HP) compressor delivery temperature
(from raising overall pressure ratio) implies an increase in HP mechanical
speed. However, stressing considerations might limit this parameter, implying,
despite an increase in overall pressure ratio, a reduction in HP compressor
pressure ratio.
According to simple theory, if the ratio of turbine rotor
inlet temperature/(HP) compressor delivery temperature is maintained, the HP
turbine throat area can be retained. However, this assumes that cycle
improvements are obtained, while retaining the datum (HP) compressor exit flow
function (non-dimensional flow). In practice, changes to the non-dimensional
speed of the (HP) compressor and cooling bleed extraction would probably make
this assumption invalid, making some adjustment to HP turbine throat area
unavoidable. This means the HP turbine nozzle guide vanes would have to be
different from the original. In all probability, the downstream LP turbine
nozzle guide vanes would have to be changed anyway.
Thrust Growth
Thrust growth is obtained by increasing core power.
There are two basic routes available:
1. hot route: increase HP turbine rotor
inlet temperature
2. cold route: increase core mass flow
Both routes require an increase in the combustor fuel flow
and, therefore, the heat energy added to the core stream.
The hot route may require changes in turbine blade/vane
materials or better blade/vane cooling. The cold route can be obtained by one
of the following:
1. adding booster stages to the LP/IP
compression
2. adding a zero-stage to the
HP compression
3. improving the compression process,
without adding stages (e.g. higher fan hub pressure ratio)
all of which increase both overall pressure ratio and core
airflow.
Alternatively, the core size can be increased, to
raise core airflow, without changing overall pressure ratio. This route is
expensive, since a new (upflowed) turbine system (and possibly a larger IP
compressor) is also required. Changes must also be made to the fan to absorb
the extra core power. On a civil engine, jet noise considerations mean that any
significant increase in take-off thrust must be accompanied by a corresponding
increase in fan mass flow (to maintain a T/O specific thrust of about
30 lbf/lb/s).
Technical Discussion
1. Specific thrust (net thrust/intake
airflow) is an important parameter for turbofans and jet engines in general.
Imagine a fan (driven by an appropriately sized electric motor) operating
within a pipe, which is connected to a propelling nozzle. It is fairly obvious,
the higher the fan pressure ratio (fan discharge pressure/fan inlet pressure),
the higher the jet velocity and the corresponding specific thrust. Now imagine
we replace this set-up with an equivalent turbofan – same airflow and same fan
pressure ratio. Obviously, the core of the turbofan must produce sufficient
power to drive the fan via the low-pressure (LP) turbine. If we choose a low
(HP) turbine inlet temperature for the gas generator, the core airflow needs to
be relatively high to compensate. The corresponding bypass ratio is therefore
relatively low. If we raise the turbine inlet temperature, the core airflow can
be smaller, thus increasing bypass ratio. Raising turbine inlet temperature
tends to increase thermal efficiency and, therefore, improve fuel
efficiency.
2. Naturally, as altitude increases,
there is a decrease in air density and, therefore, the net thrust of an engine.
There is also a flight speed effect, termed thrust lapse rate. Consider the
approximate equation for net thrust again:
3. Thrust growth on civil turbofans is
usually obtained by increasing fan airflow, thus preventing the jet noise
becoming too high. However, the larger fan airflow requires more power from the
core. This can be achieved by raising the overall pressure ratio (combustor
inlet pressure/intake delivery pressure) to induce more airflow into the core
and by increasing turbine inlet temperature. Together, these parameters tend to
increase core thermal efficiency and improve fuel efficiency.
4. Some high-bypass-ratio civil
turbofans use an extremely low area ratio (less than 1.01),
convergent-divergent, nozzle on the bypass (or mixed exhaust) stream, to
control the fan working line. The nozzle acts as if it has variable geometry.
At low flight speeds the nozzle is unchoked (less than a Mach number of unity),
so the exhaust gas speeds up as it approaches the throat and then slows down
slightly as it reaches the divergent section. Consequently, the nozzle exit
area controls the fan match and, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan
working line slightly away from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in
the intake increases nozzle pressure ratio to the point where the throat
becomes choked (M=1.0). Under these circumstances, the throat area dictates the
fan match and, being smaller than the exit, pushes the fan working line
slightly towards surge. This is not a problem, since fan surge margin is much
better at high flight speeds.
5. The off-design behaviour of turbofans
is illustrated under compressor map and turbine map.
6. Because modern civil turbofans
operate at low specific thrust, they require only a single fan stage to develop
the required fan pressure ratio. The desired overall pressure ratio for the
engine cycle is usually achieved by multiple axial stages on the core
compression. Rolls-Royce tend to split the core compression into two with an
intermediate pressure (IP) supercharging the HP compressor, both units being
driven by turbines with a single stage, mounted on separate shafts.
Consequently, the HP compressor need develop only a modest pressure ratio
(e.g., ~4.5:1). US civil engines use much higher HP compressor pressure ratios
(e.g., ~23:1 on the General Electric GE90) and tend to be driven by a
two-stage HP turbine. Even so, there are usually a few IP axial stages mounted
on the LP shaft, behind the fan, to further supercharge the core compression
system. Civil engines have multi-stage LP turbines, the number of stages being
determined by the bypass ratio, the amount of IP compression on the LP shaft
and the LP turbine blade speed.
7. Because military engines usually have
to be able to fly very fast at sea level, the limit on HP compressor delivery
temperature is reached at a fairly modest design overall pressure ratio,
compared with that of a civil engine. Also the fan pressure ratio is relatively
high, to achieve a medium to high specific thrust. Consequently, modern
military turbofans usually have only 5 or 6 HP compressor stages and require
only a single-stage HP turbine. Low-bypass-ratio military turbofans usually
have one LP turbine stage, but higher bypass ratio engines need two stages. In
theory, by adding IP compressor stages, a modern military turbofan HP
compressor could be used in a civil turbofan derivative, but the core would
tend to be too small for high thrust applications.
Improvements
Aerodynamic Modelling
Aerodynamics is a mix of subsonic, transonic and supersonic
airflow on a single fan/gas compressor blade in a modern turbofan. The airflow
past the blades must be maintained within close angular limits to keep the air
flowing against an increasing pressure. Otherwise, air will be rejected back
out of the intake. The Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) needs
accurate data for controlling the engine. The critical turbine inlet
temperature (TIT) is too harsh an environment, at 1,700 °C (3,100 °F) and 17
bar (250 psi), for reliable sensors. Therefore, during development of a new
engine type a relation is established between a more easily measured
temperature like exhaust gas temperature and the TIT. Monitoring the exhaust
gas temperature is then used to make sure the engine does not run too hot.
Blade Technology
A turbine blade with a weight of 100 g (3.5 oz) is subjected
to 1,700 °C (3,100 °F), at 17 bar (250 psi) and a centrifugal force of 40 kN
(9,000 lbf), well above the point of plastic deformation and even above the
melting point. Exotic alloys, sophisticated air-cooling schemes and special
mechanical design are needed to keep the physical stresses within the strength
of the material. Rotating seals must withstand harsh conditions for 10 years,
20,000 missions and rotating at 10 to 20,000 rpm.
Fan Blades
Fan blades have been growing as jet engines have been getting
bigger: each fan blade carries the equivalent of nine double-decker buses and
swallows air the equivalent volume of a squash court every second. Advances in
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling have permitted complex, 3D curved
shapes with very wide chord, keeping the fan capabilities while minimizing the
blade count to lower costs. Coincidentally, the bypass ratio grew to achieve
higher propulsive efficiency and the fan diameter increased.
Rolls-Royce pioneered the hollow, titanium wide-chord fan
blade in the 1980s for aerodynamic efficiency and foreign object damage
resistance in the RB211 then for the Trent. GE Aviation introduced carbon fiber
composite fan blades on the GE90 in 1995, manufactured since 2017 with a
carbon-fiber tape-layer process. GE partner Safran developed a 3D woven
technology with Albany Composites for the CFM56 and CFM LEAP engines.
Future Progress
Engine cores are shrinking as they operate at higher pressure
ratios and become more efficient and smaller compared to the fan as bypass
ratios increase. Blade tip clearances are more difficult to maintain at the
exit of the high-pressure compressor where blades are 0.5 in (13 mm) high or
less; backbone bending further affects clearance control as the core is
proportionately longer and thinner and the fan to low-pressure turbine
driveshaft space is constrained within the core.
Alan Epstein, VP Technology and Environment-Pratt & Whitney argued "Over the history of commercial aviation, we have gone from 20% to 40% [cruise efficiency], and there is a consensus among the engine community that we can probably get to 60%". Geared turbofans and further fan pressure ratio reductions may continue to improve propulsive efficiency. The second phase of the FAA's Continuous Lower Energy, Emissions and Noise (CLEEN) program is targeting for the late 2020s reductions of 33% fuel burn, 60% emissions and 32 dB EPNdb noise compared with the 2000s state-of-the-art.[55] In summer 2017 at NASA Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio, Pratt has finished testing a very-low-pressure-ratio fan on a PW1000G, resembling an open rotor with fewer blades than the PW1000G's 20.
The weight and size of the nacelle would be reduced by a
short duct inlet, imposing higher aerodynamic turning loads on the blades and
leaving less space for soundproofing, but a lower-pressure-ratio fan is slower.
UTC Aerospace Systems Aerostructures will have a full-scale ground test in 2019
of its low-drag Integrated Propulsion System with a thrust reverser, improving
fuel burn by 1% and with 2.5-3 EPNdB lower noise.
Safran expects to deliver another 10–15% in fuel efficiency
through the mid-2020s before reaching an asymptote, and next will increase the
bypass ratio to 35:1 instead of 11:1 for the CFM LEAP. Its working on
counterrotating open rotor unducted fan (propfan) in Istres, France, under the
European Clean Sky technology program. Modeling advances and high specific
strength materials may help it succeed where previous attempts failed. When
noise levels are within existing standards and similar to the LEAP engine, 15%
lower fuel burn will be available and for that Safran is testing its controls,
vibration and operation, while airframe integration is still challenging.
For GE Aviation, the energy density of jet fuel still
maximises the Breguet range equation and higher pressure ratio cores; lower
pressure ratio fans, low-loss inlets and lighter structures can further improve
thermal, transfer and propulsive efficiency. Under the U.S. Air Force's
Adaptive Engine Transition Program, adaptive thermodynamic cycles will be used
for the sixth-generation jet fighter, based on a modified Brayton cycle and
Constant volume combustion. Additive manufacturing in the advanced turboprop
will reduce weight by 5% and fuel burn by 20%.
Rotating and static ceramic matrix composite (CMC) parts
operates 500 °F (260 °C) hotter than metal and are one-third its weight. With
$21.9 million from the Air Force Research Laboratory, GE is investing $200
million in a CMC facility in Huntsville, Alabama, in addition to its Asheville,
North Carolina site, mass-producing silicon carbide matrix with silicon-carbide
fibers in 2018. CMCs will be used ten times more by the mid-2020s: the CFM LEAP
requires 18 CMC turbine shrouds per engine and the GE9X will use it in the
combustor and for 42 HP turbine nozzles.
Rolls-Royce Plc aim for a 60:1 pressure ratio core for the
2020s Ultrafan and began ground tests of its 100,000 hp (75,000 kW) gear for
100,000 lbf (440 kN) and 15:1 bypass ratios. Nearly stoichiometric turbine
entry temperature approaches the theoretical limit and its impact on emissions
has to be balanced with environmental performance goals. Open rotors, lower
pressure ratio fans and potentially distributed propulsion offer more room for
better propulsive efficiency. Exotic cycles, heat exchangers and pressure
gain/constant volume combustion may improve thermodynamic efficiency. Additive
manufacturing could be an enabler for intercooler and recuperators. Closer
airframe integration and hybrid or electric aircraft can be combined with gas
turbines.
Rolls-Royce engines have a 72–82% propulsive efficiency and
42–49% thermal efficiency for a 0.63–0.49 lb/lbf/h (64,000–50,000 g/kN/h) TSFC
at Mach 0.8, and aim for theoretical limits of 95% for open rotor propulsive
efficiency and 60% for thermal efficiency with stoichiometric turbine entry
temperature and 80:1 overall pressure ratio for a 0.35 lb/lbf/h (36,000 g/kN/h)
TSFC.
As teething troubles may not show up until several thousand
hours, the latest turbofans' technical problems disrupt airlines operations and
manufacturers deliveries while production rates rise sharply. Trent 1000
cracked blades grounded almost 50 Boeing 787s and reduced ETOPS to 2.3 hours
down from 5.5, costing Rolls-Royce plc almost $950 million. PW1000G knife-edge
seal fractures have caused Pratt & Whitney to fall behind in deliveries,
leaving about 100 engineless A320neos waiting for their powerplants. The CFM
LEAP introduction had been smoother but a ceramic composite HP Turbine coating
was prematurely lost, necessitating a new design, causing 60 A320neo engine
removals for modification and delaying deliveries by up to six weeks late.
On a widebody, Safran estimates 5–10% of fuel could be saved
by reducing power intake for hydraulic systems, while swapping to electrical
power could save 30% of weight, as initiated on the Boeing 787, while
Rolls-Royce plc hopes for up to 5%.
Commercial
turbofans in production |
|||||||
Model |
Start |
Bypass |
Length |
Fan |
Weight |
Thrust |
Users |
GE GE90 |
1992 |
8.7–9.9 |
5.18–5.40 m |
3.12–3.25 m |
7.56–8.62 t |
330–510 kN |
B777 |
P&W PW4000 |
1984 |
4.8–6.4 |
3.37–4.95 m |
2.84 m |
4.18–7.48 t |
222–436 kN |
A300/A310, A330, B747, B767, B777, MD-11 |
R-R Trent XWB |
2010 |
9.3 |
5.22 m |
3.00 m |
7.28 t |
330–430 kN |
A350XWB |
R-R Trent 800 |
1993 |
5.7–5.79 |
4.37 m |
2.79 m |
5.96–5.98 t |
411–425 kN |
B777 |
EA GP7000 |
2004 |
8.7 |
4.75 m |
2.95 m |
6.09–6.71 t |
311–363 kN |
A380 |
R-R Trent 900 |
2004 |
8.7 |
4.55 m |
2.95 m |
6.18–6.25 t |
340–357 kN |
A380 |
R-R Trent 1000 |
2006 |
10.8–11 |
4.74 m |
2.85 m |
5.77 t |
265.3–360.4 kN |
B787 |
GE GEnx |
2006 |
8.0–9.3 |
4.31-4.69 m |
2.66-2.82 m |
5.62-5.82 t |
296-339 kN |
B747-8, B787 |
R-R Trent 700 |
1990 |
4.9 |
3.91 m |
2.47 m |
4.79 t |
320 kN |
A330 |
GE CF6 |
1971 |
4.3–5.3 |
4.00–4.41 m |
2.20–2.79 m |
3.82–5.08 t |
222–298 kN |
A300/A310, A330, B747, B767, MD-11, DC-10 |
R-R Trent 500 |
1999 |
8.5 |
3.91 m |
2.47 m |
4.72 t |
252 kN |
A340-500/600 |
P&W PW1000G |
2008 |
9.0–12.5 |
3.40 m |
1.42–2.06 m |
2.86 t |
67–160 kN |
A320neo, A220, E-Jets
E2 |
CFM LEAP |
2013 |
9.0–11.0 |
3.15–3.33 m |
1.76–1.98 m |
2.78–3.15 t |
100–146 kN |
A320neo, B737Max,
C919 |
CFM56 |
1974 |
5.0–6.6 |
2.36–2.52 m |
1.52–1.84 m |
1.95–2.64 t |
97.9-151 kN |
A320, A340-200/300, B737, KC-135, DC-8 |
IAE V2500 |
1987 |
4.4–4.9 |
3.20 m |
1.60 m |
2.36–2.54 t |
97.9-147 kN |
A320, MD-90 |
P&W PW6000 |
2000 |
4.90 |
2.73 m |
1.44 m |
2.36 t |
100.2 kN |
Airbus A318 |
R-R BR700 |
1994 |
4.2–4.5 |
3.41–3.60 m |
1.32–1.58 m |
1.63–2.11 t |
68.9–102.3 kN |
B717, Global
Express, Gulfstream V |
GE Passport |
2013 |
5.6 |
3.37 m |
1.30 m |
2.07 t |
78.9–84.2 kN |
Global 7000/8000 |
GE CF34 |
1982 |
5.3–6.3 |
2.62–3.26 m |
1.25–1.32 m |
0.74–1.12 t |
41–82.3 kN |
Challenger 600, CRJ, E-jets |
P&WC PW800 |
2012 |
5.5 |
1.30 m |
67.4–69.7 kN |
Gulfstream G500/G600 |
||
R-R Tay |
1984 |
3.1–3.2 |
2.41 m |
1.12–1.14 m |
1.42–1.53 t |
61.6–68.5 kN |
Gulfstream IV, Fokker
70/100 |
Silvercrest |
2012 |
5.9 |
1.90 m |
1.08 m |
1.09 t |
50.9 kN |
Citation Hemisphere, Falcon
5X |
R-R AE 3007 |
1991 |
5.0 |
2.71 m |
1.11 m |
0.72 t |
33.7 kN |
ERJ, Citation X |
P&WC PW300 |
1988 |
3.8–4.5 |
1.92–2.07 m |
0.97 m |
0.45–0.47 t |
23.4–35.6 kN |
Citation Sovereign, G200, Falcon
7X, Falcon 2000 |
HW HTF7000 |
1999 |
4.4 |
2.29 m |
0.87 m |
0.62 t |
28.9 kN |
Challenger 300, G280, Legacy
500 |
HW TFE731 |
1970 |
2.66–3.9 |
1.52–2.08 m |
0.72–0.78 m |
0.34–0.45 t |
15.6–22.2 kN |
Learjet 70/75, G150, Falcon
900 |
Williams FJ44 |
1985 |
3.3–4.1 |
1.36–2.09 m |
0.53–0.57 m |
0.21–0.24 t |
6.7–15.6 kN |
Citation Jet, Citation
M2 |
P&WC PW500 |
1993 |
3.90 |
1.52 m |
0.70 m |
0.28 t |
13.3 kN |
Citation Excel, Phenom
300 |
GE-H HF120 |
2009 |
4.43 |
1.12 m |
0.54 m |
0.18 t |
7.4 kN |
HondaJet |
Williams FJ33 |
1998 |
0.98 m |
0.53 m |
0.14 t |
6.7 kN |
Cirrus SF50 |
|
P&WC PW600 |
2001 |
1.8–2.8 |
0.67 m |
0.36 m |
0.15 t |
6.0 kN |
Citation Mustang, Eclipse
500, Phenom 100 |
PS-90 |
1992 |
4.4 |
4.96 m |
1.9 m |
2.95 t |
157–171 kN |
Il-76, Il-96, Tu-204 |
PowerJet SaM146 |
2008 |
4–4.1 |
3.59 m |
1.22 m |
2.260 t |
71.6–79.2 kN |
Sukhoi Superjet 100 |
Extreme Bypass Jet Engines
In the 1970s, Rolls-Royce/SNECMA tested a M45SD-02 turbofan
fitted with variable-pitch fan blades to improve handling at ultralow fan
pressure ratios and to provide thrust reverse down to zero aircraft speed. The
engine was aimed at ultraquiet STOL aircraft operating from city-centre
airports. In a bid for increased efficiency with speed, a development of the
turbofan and turboprop known as a propfan engine was created that had an
unducted fan. The fan blades are situated outside of the duct, so that it appears
like a turboprop with wide scimitar-like blades. Both General Electric and
Pratt & Whitney/Allison demonstrated propfan engines in the 1980s.
Excessive cabin noise and relatively cheap jet fuel prevented the engines being
put into service. The Progress D-27 propfan, developed in the U.S.S.R., was the
only propfan engine equipped on a production aircraft.
Turbofan Engine - An Evolution Over Turbojet Engine
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